henry armstrong record

In 1938 with 14 consecutive wins, 10 by knockout, Armstrong achieved his goal, becoming the first boxer to "I carried him the last four rounds," Armstrong said. It is a testament to Sugar Ray Robinsons greatness as a boxer that when people discuss who was the, Sugar Ray Robinson The former fighter, who for. When Sims won the title in 20, he was the first Mississippi boxer to hold a title in more than 30 years, according to his coach, Bombay Higginbottom. He quit his job working for the Missouri-Pacific Railroad, figuring he could make his fortune fighting for pay. While successfully defending this welterweight title, Armstrong was also featherweight world champion and defeated Lou Ambers to become world lightweight champion. The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. [citation needed], Later in 1938, Armstrong, still the Featherweight division world champion, challenged Barney Ross for the title. He also wrote the autobiographical God, Gloves, and Glory (1956). He was the son of Henry Jackson Sr., a sharecropper of African American descent and America Jackson, said to be a "full-blooded" Iroquois. She died on the way to the hospital in Armstrong's arms, having suffered chest pains. Two boxers from the Pearl Boxing Club will be fighting in the event: Chown 'Chop Chop' Sims, and Keshaun 'Big Baby' Davis. He did manage to win his second fight on points; however, he decided to return to St. Louis. By the time Armstrong graduated from high school at the age of 17, the Great Depression had arrived. To this day, he is the only boxer to simultaneously hold three world titles in different weight divisions. Armstrong knocked Sarron out in six rounds, becoming the World Featherweight Champion. A Who's Who of Sports Champions: Their Stories and Records. Henry Armstrong (1912-1988) became the first boxer in history to hold world titles in three separate weight classes at the same time. We encourage you to research and examine these records to determine their accuracy. Henry Armstrong. navpostcardcold.src = "/i/sportscentury/nav_postcard_cold.gif"; Statistics for all 21 Henry Armstrong results: 61 yrs AVERAGE AGE 40% are in their 40s, while the average age is 61. In 1990 his name was added posthumously to the International Boxing Hall of Fame. The fight lasted 15 rounds. His debut as an 18-year-old pro was inauspicious, as he was knocked out in the third round by Al Iovino on July 27, 1931, in Pennsylvania. [2] Historian Bert Sugar also ranked Armstrong as the second-greatest fighter of all time. Hometown: Columbus, MS. Year Induction: 2010. function act(imgName) { Cambridge University Press, 1998. After a brief third marriage, Armstrong married his fourth wife, Gussie Henry, in 1978. During his final years, Armstrong suffered from numerous illnesses, including cataracts and dementia, commonly attributed to the punishment he took as a boxer. He defeated sixteen world champions.After he quit boxing, he became an ordained minister and devoted himself to underprivileged children. Well aware that his meager pay would never be sufficient to attend college, Armstrong's life changed one day when the sports section of a discarded newspaper landed at his feet. 1716-1914: New York State Religious Records at Findmypast; images only ($) 1809-1850: 10,000 Vital Records of Western New York at Ancestry; index & images, ($) 1875-1916: New York, Yonkers, Birth and Death Registration and Indexes at FamilySearch . Continue with Recommended Cookies, The most consecutive boxing world welterweight title defences is 18 by Henry Armstrong (USA) from 25 November 1938 to 23 September 1940.Advertisementsif(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[320,50],'guinnessworldrecords_com-box-3','ezslot_2',108,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-guinnessworldrecords_com-box-3-0');if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[320,50],'guinnessworldrecords_com-box-3','ezslot_3',108,'0','1'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-guinnessworldrecords_com-box-3-0_1');.box-3-multi-108{border:none!important;display:block!important;float:none!important;line-height:0;margin-bottom:7px!important;margin-left:auto!important;margin-right:auto!important;margin-top:7px!important;max-width:100%!important;min-height:50px;padding-bottom:20px!important;padding-top:20px!important;text-align:center!important}. navgalleryover.src = "/i/sportscentury/nav_gallery_over.gif"; "Henry Armstrong "Latsios spent most of the time retreating before Henry." (Lethbridge Herald) "Nick fought a remarkable fight with his flicking left, back-stepping, hit and run method.Henry was disgusted with his inability to catch the elusive Latsios.In the final frame Armstrong almost scored a knockdown but the wily Nick regained his balance after landing against the ropes." Henry Armstrong now had one win and three losses in four pro fights. He decided not to maintain the required 126-pound weight anymore and left the featherweight crown vacant.[12]. . These 11 fights are the highlight of his career. In 1932, Armstrong moved to Los Angeles, where he lost two four-round decisions in a row to Eddie Trujillo and Al Greenfield. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. The streak finally ended when Arizmendi lasted ten rounds before losing a decision to Armstrong in their fourth fight. [3] He was posthumously inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 1990. He became known for his whirlwind combination of constant movement and knockout punches, earning him numerous new nicknames, including Homicide Hank, Perpetual Motion, and Hurricane Henry. Like his mother, his grandmother hoped that he would pursue a career in the ministry. He lost by knockout only two times in his 15 years of boxing. Henry Armstrong is recognized by boxing historians as one of the greatest fighters. ever hold three undisputed titles at the same time. Armstrong had a 151-21-9 record in his 15-year professional career. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/henry-armstrong, "Henry Armstrong He defended it in eight fights in a row, the last of which was a nine-round knockout win over Puerto Rico's Pedro Montaez. In 1931 Armstrong, accompanied by Harry Armstrong, hopped trains to Los Angeles to restart his amateur career. Click here to subscribe to our newsletter. The 23-year-old boxer was raised in Pearl, but is from Columbus. When Cox sold his contract on Armstrong to Wirt Ross in 1932 for $250, Armstrong entered the professional ranks to stay. After taking 16 months off, he came back and stayed around until 1945, fighting 49 times although he had lost most of his skill. So, its just a coincidence that all this is coming together like that.. . He first set his sights on the lightweight division, but his challenge to a title fight was declined by lightweight titleholder Lou Ambers. Of 26 title fights, Armstrong won all but four (three losses and a draw). Henry Irwin Armstrong. He finally relinquished his welterweight title to Fritzie Zivic by unanimous decision after 15 thrilling rounds. November 25, 1938: Armstrong successfully defends the NBA and The Ring welterweight titles against Ceferino Garcia, winning the fight via 15 round unanimous decision. Hes fighting on the card, and he was the first person in Mississippi to win a title [since 1988], Higginbottom said. . Armstrong had his cornermen remove his mouthpiece so he could swallow the blood flowing in his mouth the last five rounds. Armstrong was in many ways the complete prototype of a pressure. During the final years of the 1940s he traveled to China, Burma, and India with Raft as part of a group sent to entertain soldiers. Henry Armstrong (Homicide Hank) was an American professional boxer. One of the greatest fighters in history, Hurricane Hank is the only fighter to hold 3 world Championships simultaneously. . October 9, 1939: Armstrong successfully defends the NBA and The Ring welterweight titles against Al Manfredo, winning the fight via 4th round TKO. He defeated Sarron via 6th round KO to become the featherweight champion of the world. Therefore, its best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publications requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. Armstrong was dynamite in a small He became an ordained Baptist minister in 1951. Armstrong dedicated the next two years to defending the welterweight crown, beating, among others, Ceferino Garcia, a future World Middleweight Champion, and Bobby Pacho. He met the minimum weight by upping his calorie intake, drinking beer the days before the bout and a lot of water on the day of weigh-in. ." October 13, 1939: Armstrong successfully defends the NBA and The Ring welterweight titles against Howard Scott, winning the fight via 2nd round KO. All but one of his defences were in the USA. But the tides turned later in the year when he won against former flyweight champion Midget Wolgast. There he became involved in boxing. But Garcia shut the challenger's left eye and gained a draw, enabling him to keep the title. He was born Henry Jackson, Jr. on December 12, 1912, in Columbus, Mississippi. He was the son of Henry Jackson Sr., a sharecropper of African American descent and America Jackson, said to be a "full-blooded" Iroquois. He was a Black boxer. "Latsios spent most of the time retreating before Henry." (Lethbridge Herald) "Nick fought a remarkable fight with his flicking left, back-stepping, hit and run method.Henry was disgusted with his inability to catch the elusive Latsios.In the final frame Armstrong almost scored a knockdown but the wily Nick regained his balance after landing against the ropes." document[imgName].src = eval(imgName + 'cold.src'); They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. In 2007, The Ring ranked Armstrong as the second-greatest fighter of the last 80 years. Armstrong knocked down the champ in the fifth and sixth rounds, but Ambers cut him severely. He defended his welterweight title a total of nineteen times. In 1954 he became a charter member of the Boxing Hall of Fame, inducted in its opening year along with Joe Louis and Jack Dempsey. The event is named after the late Mississippi boxer, Henry Armstrong, who, in 1938, became the first boxer to ever hold three world titles at the same time. His first win came later that year, beating Sammy Burns by a decision in six. Professional boxer, entertainer, businessman Copyright 2023 WLBT. The Ring magazine named him Fighter of the Year in 1937. Encyclopedia of World Biography. First, he knocked out featherweight champion Petey Sarron in the sixth round on Oct. 29, 1937. var navgallerycold = new Image(); Comments below may relate to previous holders of this record. December 12, 1912October 22, 1988 Born in Columbus, Mississippi, on December 12, 1912, boxer Henry Armstrong became the featherweight, welterweight and lightweight world champion in 1938. Armstrong defended his Lightweight belt in a rematch with Ambers, which he lost on a 15-round decision. if (document.images) { Armstrong fought his first major bout in November 1934, losing the world featherweight championship in a close decision to Baby Arizmendi. Seven months later, a fading Armstrong finally lost his welterweight title after the 19 successful defenses, including six in 1940. Armstrong lost weight in order to compete in the lower weight division, and beat World Lightweight Champion Lou Ambers by split decision. // -->. Working at the "colored" Young Men's Christian Association, Armstrong met Harry Armstrong, a former boxer, who became his friend, mentor, and trainer. But he was learning how to harness his natural physical gifts; strength, quickness, stamina, and the ability to take a punch. In an attempt to gain popularity and therefore more important fights with bigger purses, they set a goal of winning titles in three different weight divisions, an accomplishment no boxer had ever achieved. He suffered his first loss in his professional debut against Al Lovino via 3rd round KO. navathletescold.src = "/i/sportscentury/nav_athletes_cold.gif"; Two local boxers fighting in inaugural Henry Armstrong Boxing Classic, The event will be held in Columbus on Saturday, Former wrestler tied to TANF scandal pleads guilty to conspiracy in federal court, 42K Mississippians without power after strong winds cause outages, JPD investigating after vehicle riddled with bullets on Maria Drive, Caver Ks 10, JSU baseball run-rules rival Alcorn State for 7th straight win, JSU footballs Blue and White game receives date, Tougaloo College to play Texas A&M Texarkana in first round of NAIA championship, Request a First Alert Weather School Visit. "Henry Armstrong," Notable Black American Men, Gale Research, 1998. http://www.galenet.com(December 13, 2000). October 30, 1939: Armstrong successfully defends the NBA and The Ring welterweight titles against Bobby Pacho, winning the fight via 4th round TKO. To this day, he is the only boxer to . Professional boxer Birth abt 1887 - Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England. Here he gained his first boxing experience, winning a competition among the pinboys. Career record 151-21-9 with 101 knockouts (Third All-Time behind Archie Moore & Sugar Ray Robinson) More on VHS Collection here: http://www.vhscollection.com/.Thanks for tuning in. The Ring, a boxing magazine, named Armstrong Boxer of the Year for 1938. "Henry Armstrong," Newsmakers 1989, Issue 4. But 1938 was an even better year for Armstrong, as he took the two more championships. He also taught young fighters how to box. During the fight Armstrong suffered an eye injury that required surgery. It was one of only two knockouts Armstrong would suffer in his career. He gained fame in 1938 when he reigned as featherweight, lightweight and welterweight champion. Armstrong was one of the few fighters to win in three or more different divisions: featherweight, lightweight, and welterweight. Armstrong had 22 losses. } In his 2006 book "Boxing's Greatest Fighters," historian Bert Sugar ranked Armstrong as the second greatest fighter of all-time. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. henry armstrong "homicide hank" 150 Wins 21 Losses 10 Draws 55.8% Stance: Orthodox Age: 113 Date Of Birth: 12 Dec 1909 Height: 5.45 ft (1.66 m) Reach: 66.93 inches (170 cm) Country: United States Universal ID : 8194 edit details henry armstrong opponents PTS Chester Slider (37-18-12) Wed, 14 Feb - 1945 round 10 of 10 . After that, he concentrated once again on defending the world Welterweight title. } Professional Boxer. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. William Henry Armstrong. PEARL, Miss. When the promoters postponed the bout for 10 days, Armstrong accepted Joe Louis's invitation to train at Pompton Lakes, New Jersey, with Louis paying for all expenses. Hall of Fame in 1954 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990. See an An Overview of Records at the National Archives Relating to Military . Info Share. document[imgName].src = eval(imgName + 'over.src'); May 31, 1938: Armstrong wins the NBA and The Ring welterweight titles from Barney Ross, by beating Ross via 15 round unanimous decision. His outstanding ring record was 151 wins, 21 defeats, and 9 draws with 101 knockouts. After the decision was announced, the second fight started; both managers and the New York State Athletic Commission were the participants. #GreatestOfAllTime#HenryArmstrong#TeddyAtlas Encyclopedia of World Biography. sensational; However, when he hit stride The road to becoming a champion was not entirely smooth. Research genealogy for Henry Armstrong of Newcastle Upon Tyne, Northumberland, England, as well as other members of the Armstrong family, on Ancestry. He was born in Columbus, Mississippi on December 12, 1912. Armstrong was the first boxer ever to hold world championships in three different weight divisions at the same time. After retiring from boxing, Armstrong became an ordained Baptist minister, working with disadvantaged youth. ." Herb Goldman ranked Armstrong as the #4 All-Time Lightweight; He was inducted into the Ring Boxing We encourage you to research and examine these records to determine their accuracy. For other people named Henry Armstrong, see, Olympic Auditorium, Los Angeles, California, Civic Auditorium, San Francisco, California, Madison Square Garden, New York City, New York, Municipal Auditorium, Kansas City, Missouri, Convention Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Memorial Auditorium, Sacramento, California, Billed as a World Middleweight Title fight recognized only by California, Municipal Audiotrium, Saint Louis, Missouri, Harringay Arena, Harringay, London, England, Municipal Audtiorium, Saint Louis, Missouri, Madison Square Garden Bowl, New York City, New York, International Amphitheatre, Chicago, Illinois, University of Detroit Stadium, Detroit, Michigan, Dexter Park Arena, Woodhaven, New York City, New York, Municipal Auditorium, Saint Louis, Missouri, Retained world featherweight title (CaliforniaMexico), Won world featherweight title (California-Mexico), Retained USA California State featherweight title, Civic Auditorium, Watsonville, California, Bakersfield Arena, Bakersfield, California, Pismo Beach Arena, Pismo Beach, California, Main Street Athletic Club, Los Angeles, California, Culver City Stadium, Culver City, California, Meyers Bowl, North Braddock, Pennsylvania, "BoxRec ratings: world, pound-for-pound, active and inactive", "Boxing Hall of Fame names first inductees", "IBRO All-Time Ratings - Pound For Pound Results", "IBRO All-Time Ratings - Featherweight Ratings", "IBRO All-Time Ratings - Welterweight Ratings", "IBRO All-Time Ratings - Lightweight Ratings", "Henry Armstrong: Goes for Four Divisions", "Ceferino Garcia vs. Henry Armstrong (2nd meeting) BoxRec", Armstrong, seated, posing with a title belt, National Boxing Association's Quarterly Ratings: 1938 BoxRec, National Boxing Association's Quarterly Ratings: 1939 BoxRec, National Boxing Association's Quarterly Ratings: 1940 BoxRec, The Ring Magazine's Annual Ratings: Lightweight--1930s BoxRec, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Armstrong&oldid=1135310555, World colored welterweight boxing champions, International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees, 20th-century African-American sportspeople, 20th-century Baptist ministers from the United States, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2016, Pages with login required references or sources, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, In 1987, he was among those inductees from, In 1995, Armstrong was posthumously honored for his boxing career by being inducted into the, The story of his life is retold in the radio drama ", This page was last edited on 23 January 2023, at 22:13. Boxing as a featherweight, he gained quite a bit of experience from 1933 to 1935, fighting 46 times, mostly in California and Mexico. Henry held three world titles - Welterweight, Following these two losses, however, he started a streak of 11 wins.In 1936, Armstrong split his time among Los Angeles, Mexico City and St. Louis. Securing a contract with Cox for three dollars, he had almost 100 amateur fights, in which he won more than half by knockout and lost none. Robinson, Sugar Ray 19211989 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Armstrong, African American Registry - Biography of Henry Armstrong, BlackPast.org - Biography of Henry Armstrong, International Boxing Hall of Fame - Biography of Henry Armstrong, Henry Armstrong - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). Fleischer ranked him as the #8 All-Time Welterweight; Upon his return, he became a boxing manager for a time, but his increasing use of alcohol led to his arrest in Los Angeles. Armstrong starred in the feature film Keep Punching (1939) in 1939. What makes a Guinness World Records title? He is currently ranked by BoxRec as the 12th-greatest pound-for-pound fighter of all time. In 1936, entertainer Al Jolson and actor George Raft underwrote the purchase of Armstrong's managerial contract from Edward Mead.Armstrong knocked out Petey Sarron in six rounds in 1937 to win the World Featherweight Championship, and was named "The Ring Fighter of the Year in 1937. Armstrong went on to win his last 12 fights in 1936. After three amateur fights, he turned professional in 1931 under the name "Melody Jackson." As a child, Henry Jr. moved with his family to St. Louis, Missouri, during the early period of the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to industrial cities of the Midwest and North. This fight is the second best . Born: December 12, 1912. [11] In February 1966, Rev. High School Career. Armstrong moved to Los Angeles, where he resumed his amateur status. In 1932, Armstrong moved to Los Angeles, where he lost two four-round decisions in a row to Eddie Trujillo and Al Greenfield. Henry Jackson Jr. (December 12, 1912 - October 24, 1988) was an American professional boxer and a world boxing champion who fought under the name Henry Armstrong . 26 of those wins came via knockouts. Early in his career, he fought some fights under the ring name Melody Jackson. He played a boxer named Henry "Little Dynamite" Jackson.In 1940, Armstrong challenged Ceferino Garca for a portion of the World Middleweight Championship. When Armstrong was four years old, his father moved the family to St. Louis, where he and Armstrong's older brothers found work at the Independent Packing Company. "Henry Armstrong You may want to start by searching for a person's Military Service Records and Pension and Bounty Land records. [14] According to boxing historian Bert Sugar, many commentators of the time said that Armstrong deserved the decision in this fight. His mother, America, was half-Cherokee Indian. Bernard Hopkins has been nicknamed the Executioner for the way he dispatches opponents and for the way he enters the rin, Henrquez y Carvajal, Francisco (18591935), Henry Cogswell College: Narrative Description, Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery, Henry Ford Community College: Distance Learning Programs, Henry Ford Community College: Narrative Description, Henry Ford Community College: Tabular Data, https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/henry-armstrong. As a youngster, he got into neighborhood street fights. After retirement, he became an ordained minister. 149-21-9 (100 KO) Armstrong was dynamite in a small package; He was a high pressure, non-stop fighter who threw punches from the beginning to the end of every round; His goal was to knock his man out - if he didn't manage that, he certainly battered him thoroughly. After retiring from boxing in 1946, Armstrong briefly opened a Harlem nightclub, the Melody Room (named after his first nickname). Henry passed away in March 1981, at age 94. Full Q\u0026A episode here: https://youtu.be/KULHRj7H9l0**** Teddy's Audiobook Now Available. Henry Armstrong (1912-1988) became the first boxer in history to hold world titles in three separate weight classes at the same time. His father, Henry Jackson, Sr., was a sharecropper and a butcher. A few notable opponents of that year include Ritchie Fontaine, Baby Arizmendi, former world champion Juan Zurita, and Mike Belloise. His official record was 152 wins, 21 losses and 9 draws, with 101 knockout wins.[10]. var navclassicover = new Image(); In a publicity stunt, Jolson and Mead falsely advertised the buy-out price as $10,000. Fighting true to form, Armstrong applied pressure throughout the bout. Armstrong had a 151-21-9 record in his 15-year professional career. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Armstrong is a Hall of Famer. [15], Returning to the welterweight division, Armstrong successfully defended the title five more times, until Fritzie Zivic beat him to take the world title in a 15-round decision. We encourage you to research and examine these records to determine their accuracy. Two boxers from the Pearl Boxing Club will be fighting in the event: Chown Chop Chop Sims, and Keshaun Big Baby Davis. Armstrong's mother died of consumption in 1918, leaving the six-year-old under the care of his paternal grandmother. The event is even more special for Davis. navcontributecold.src = "/i/sportscentury/nav_contribute_cold.gif"; ESPN ranked Armstrong as number 3 on their list of the 50 greatest boxers of all time. Within the Cite this article tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. In defending himself against bullies, he discovered his interest in boxing. Of his total 151 wins, 100 of them were via KO (66.2%). As an amateur Armstrong fought under the name of Melody Jackson. navpostcardover.src = "/i/sportscentury/nav_postcard_over.gif"; (WLBT) - The inaugural Henry Armstrong Boxing Classic will be held in Columbus on Saturday. Five-time middleweight champion of the world, Sugar Ray Robinson is remembered as the greatest boxer ever, Patterson, Floyd 1935 Aldo Spoldi was the only opponent to take him the full 10 rounds. Referee Arthur Donovan took five rounds away from Armstrong for low blows. Armstrong started 1937 off with a string of 22 straight wins, en route to 27 total wins that year. in the mid 1930s, Armstrong was as good as anyone has ever "Henry Jackson," Contemporary Authors Online, Gale Research, 1999. http://www.galenet.com(December 13, 2000). Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. His final professional record stood at 174 recorded bouts, 145 wins with 98 by knockout. Armstrong was inducted into Ring magazines Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954. He won 14 fights before bypassing the lightweight title and challenging welterweight champion Barney Ross for his crown on May 31, 1938. His mother, America (Armstrong) Jackson was an Iroquois Indian. Henry died on October 23, 1988 . Velma Tartt was a former girlfriend from his high school days. Armstrong's attempt to win a world title in a fourth division was frustrated. Boxer Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Armstrong first married in 1934. We have 458 records for Henry Armstrong ranging in age from 31 years old to 97 years old. He officially turned pro a year later after failing to make the 1932 Olympic team, and he lost his first two fights, both four-round decisions in Los Angeles in 1932. out - if he didn't manage that, he certainly battered him thoroughly Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. On March 1, 1940, in Los Angeles, Armstrong sought to become the first-ever four-division champion when he attempted to wrest the middleweight crown from Ceferino Garcia, whom he had decisioned in a welterweight defense in 1938. For more details about these defeats, refer to "All of Henry Armstrong's losses". Info Share. While attending Toussaint L'Ouverture Grammar School in St. Louis, Armstrong acquired the nickname "Red" due to his curly sandy hair with a reddish tint. Henry Armstrong. var navpostcardover = new Image(); After retiring from boxing, Armstrong became an ordained Baptist minister, working with disadvantaged youth.

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